Atoms bond in order to form a more stable (lower energy) molecule. ### Atomic Bonding - Ionic - electron transfer between atoms with difference in electronegativity > 2 - typically between metals and nonmetals - electrostatic attraction - Covalent - electron sharing between two nonmetals of similar electronegativity - Polar covalent - Unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms due to a difference in their electronegativities - Results in a partial charge and net dipole moment Ionization potential (IP): Energy required for an atom to lose an electron Electron Affinity (EA): Energy required to acquire an electron ### Hybridization - Count $\sigma$ bonds plus lone pairs: 4 → sp³, 3 → sp², 2 → sp. - Exception: lone pairs of resonance systems are in p-orbitals and sp$^{2}$ Visualization of double and triple bonds: ![[Pasted image 20260917171735.png|252]] ![[Pasted image 20260917171721.png|272]] ### Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion Theory (VSEPR) ![[Pasted image 20260915124506.png|425]] ### Intermolecular Bonding - Hydrogen Bonds - Dipole Dipole - London Dispersion Forces (LDF)